Politics & Governance / Political Philosophy & Theory / Liberalism & Ideology

Since its founding in the mid-19th century, Marxism has evolved from a localized critique of Europe

Since its founding in the mid-19th century, Marxism has evolved from a localized critique of European industrial capitalism into a globally influential scientific theory, social movement, and institutional practice. The following is a comprehensive summary of its developmental history, diverse schools, and contemporary forms: 1. Theoretical Foundation and Core Logic​ At the heart of Marxism is historical materialism, which holds that the mode of material production is the foundation of social structure. Structural Model: The economic base (productive forces and relations of production) determines the superstructure (law, politics, ideology). Driving Force: Contradictions between productive forces and relations of production are the fundamental drivers of social change, often manifested through class struggle. Essential Characteristics: It is scientific, pro-people, practical, and open, emphasizing that philosophy should not only interpret the world but also change it. 2. Diversified Evolution of Global Schools​ As the theory traveled across different geographic and academic contexts, Marxism branched into several notable schools: Western Marxism: Originated in the 1920s, shifting focus from economic structure to culture, ideology, and psychological analysis, exploring how capitalism achieves rule through “hegemony.” Analytical Marxism: Emerged in the late 1970s, advocating the use of modern analytic philosophy, logic, mathematical models, and game theory to reconstruct Marx’s theories of class and exploitation, pursuing rigorous argumentation (“plain speaking”). Eco-Marxism: Focuses on the “metabolic rift” caused by capital’s infinite accumulation, examining human-nature conflicts and their structural crises in the 21st century. Marxist Feminism: Through “social reproduction theory,” incorporates unpaid labor such as childcare and housework into a systematic analysis of the capitalist production system. 3. Sinicization of Marxism: Practice and Transformation​ The development of Marxism in China has undergone a historic leap from revolution to construction, and then to reform: Mao Zedong Thought: Integrated Marxism with China’s semi-colonial, semi-feudal conditions, creatively establishing a revolutionary path led by peasants and encircling cities from rural areas. Reform and Opening-Up & Socialist Market Economy: Deng Xiaoping proposed that “poverty is not socialism,” achieving rapid liberation of productive forces by “decoupling” and then reconnecting market economy mechanisms with basic socialist institutions. Data Insight: This practice reduced China’s poverty rate from 30.7% in 2000 to 0.6% in 2019, while maintaining an average annual GDP growth of 8–10% for two decades. 4. Latest Forms and Challenges in the 21st Century​ Entering the new era, Marxism demonstrates resilience in addressing complex contemporary challenges: Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era: Defined as the concentrated embodiment of “Marxism for the 21st century.” Targeting the principal contradiction of “the people’s ever-growing needs for a better life and unbalanced, inadequate development,” it proposes original contributions such as the new development philosophy, Chinese-style modernization, and building a community with a shared future for mankind. Critique of Digital Capitalism: Contemporary theory focuses on “digital labor” and “algorithmic control,” exploring how big data and AI reshape exploitation and alienation. Comparative Perspective: In terms of reform paths, compared with Eastern European countries’ oscillation between planning and markets (e.g., Yugoslavia and Hungary’s “either-or” models), China has achieved benign interaction between the two through “both-and” dialectical thinking under strong state governance. In summary, Marxism is not a rigid dogma but a living methodology that continuously renews itself with changing times. In the 21st century, it remains a powerful ideological tool for analyzing global inequality, ecological crises, and technological transformations, and through successful practices in countries like China, continues to influence the trajectory of human civilization.